Rhetorical Appeals

To establish your credibility, to show readers you are trustworthy, to win over their hearts, and to set your issue in an appropriate time frame to influence readers, consider how you present and discuss your evidence throughout the paper.

• Appeal to ethos. To establish credibility in her paper arguing for expanded mental health services, a student writer used these reliable sources: a student survey on mental health issues, data from the International Association of Counseling Services (a professional organization), and information from an interview with a campus mental health counselor.
• Appeal to logos. To support her sound reasoning, the student writer approached the issue rationally, using data and credible evidence to explain the current situation and its effects.
• Appeal to pathos. To show compassion and arouse audience empathy, the student writer shared the experience of a student on her campus who struggled with anxiety and depression.
• Appeal to kairos. To appeal to kairos, the student emphasized the immediate need for these services, as more students are now aware of their particular mental health issues and trying to deal with them.

The way in which you present and discuss your evidence will reflect the appeals you use. Consider using sentence frames to reflect specific appeals. Remember, too, that sentence frames can be composed in countless ways.

Types of Supporting Evidence

Depending on the point you are making to support your position or argument, certain types of evidence may be more effective than others. Also, your instructor may require you to include a certain type of evidence. Choose the evidence that will be most effective to support the reasoning behind each point you make to support your thesis statement. Common types of evidence are these:

• Anecdotes: short narrative.
  

  Renada G., a junior at Powell College South, worked as a waitress for 15 hours a week during her first three semesters of college. But in her sophomore year, when her parents were laid off during the pandemic, Renada had to increase her hours to 35 per week and sell her car to stay in school. Her grades started slipping, and she began experiencing symptoms of depression and anxiety. When she called the campus health center to make an appointment for counseling, Renada was told she would have to wait two weeks before she could be seen.

• Definition: an explanation that emphasizes the meaning of an idea, term, or concept.
  

  Here is part of how Lyndon B. Johnson defined the Great Society: “But most of all, the Great Society is not a safe harbor, a resting place, a final objective, a finished work. It is a challenge constantly renewed, beckoning us toward a destiny where the meaning of our lives matches the marvelous products of our labor.”

• Description: evidence that portrays a person, place, thing, or idea with sensory or other vivid details.
  

  Bowen Lake is nestled in verdant foothills, lush with tall grasses speckled with wildflowers. Around the lake, the sweet scent of the purple and yellow flowers fills the air, and the fragrance of the hearty pines sweeps down the hillsides in a westerly breeze. Wood frogs’ and crickets’ songs suddenly stop, as the blowing of moose calling their calves echoes across the lake’s soundless surface. Or this was the scene before the deadly destruction of fires caused by climate change.

• Example: evidence that illustrates an idea.
  

  When elaborating on America’s beauty being in danger, Johnson says, “The water we drink, the food we eat, the very air that we breathe, are threatened with pollution. Our parks are overcrowded, our seashores overburdened. Green fields and dense forests are disappearing.”

• Expert opinion: evidence or viewpoints provided by a professional in the field or someone whose ideas are respected on the subject.
  

  Speaking about President Lyndon B. Johnson and the Vietnam War, noted historian and Johnson biographer Doris Kearns Goodwin said, “It seemed the hole in his heart from the loss of work was too big to fill.”

• Fact: information that is true and can be proven correct or accurate.
  

  Charles Blow has worked at the Shreveport Times, The Detroit News, National Geographic, and The New York Times.

• Interview: evidence gathered firsthand from a source person, usually in a person-to-person conversation, by phone, or through a remote meeting.
  

  When interviewed by George Rorick and asked about the identities of his readers, Charles Blow said that readers’ emails do not elaborate on descriptions of who the people are. However, “the kinds of comments that they offer are very much on the thesis of the essay.”

• Quotation: exact words repeated by someone other than the original author or speaker.
  

  In his speech, Lyndon B. Johnson says, “The Great Society is a place where every child can find knowledge to enrich his mind and to enlarge his talents.”

• Statistics: numerical facts or items of data, usually from a study.
  

  To support the need for change in classrooms, Johnson uses these statistics: “Each year more than 100,000 high school graduates, with proved ability, do not enter college because they cannot afford it. And if we cannot educate today’s youth, what will we do in 1970 when elementary school enrollment will be five million greater than 1960?”

• Visuals: graphs, photographs, charts, or maps used in addition to written or spoken information.

              Graphics like this one present information visually and concisely.

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Brainstorming Supporting Points

When you have finished, look over your brainstorming. Then circle three to five points to incorporate into your draft. Also, plan to answer “reporters’ questions” to provide readers with any needed background information. For example, the student writing about the need for more mental health counselors on her campus created and answered these questions:

• What is needed? More mental health counseling is needed for Powell College South.

• Who would benefit from this? The students and faculty would benefit.

• Why is this needed? The college does not have enough counselors to meet all students’ needs.
• Where are more counselors needed? More counselors are needed at the south campus.
• When are the counselors needed? Counselors need to be hired now and be available both day and night to accommodate students’ schedules.
• How can the college afford this? Instead of hiring daycare workers, the college could use students and faculty from the Early Childhood Education program to run the program and use the extra money to pay the counselors.

Using Logic

In a position argument, the appropriate use of logic is especially important for readers to trust what you write. It is also important to look for logic in the material you read and to cite this material in your paper so that you can determine whether a writer’s claims are reasonable. Two main categories of logical thought are inductive reasoning and deductive reasoning.

• Inductive reasoning moves from specific to broad ideas. You begin by collecting details, observations, incidents, or facts, examining them, and drawing a conclusion from them. Suppose, for example, you are writing about attendance in college classes. For three weeks, you note the attendance numbers in all your Monday, Wednesday, and Friday classes (specific details), and you note that attendance is lower on Friday than on the other days (a specific detail). From these observations, you determine that many students prefer not to attend classes on Fridays (your conclusion).
• Deductive reasoning moves from general to specific ideas. You begin with a hypothesis or premise, a general concept, and then examine possibilities that would lead to a specific and logical conclusion. For instance, suppose you think that opportunities for foreign students at your college are inadequate (general concept). You examine the specific parts of that concept (e.g., whether your college provides multicultural clubs, help with language skills, or work-study opportunities) and determine that those opportunities are not available. You then determine that opportunities for foreign students are lacking at your college.

Logical Fallacies and Propaganda

Fallacies are mistakes in logic. Readers and writers should be aware of these when they creep into writing, indicating that the points the writers make may not be valid. Two common fallacies are hasty generalizations and circular arguments.

• A hasty generalization is a conclusion based on either inadequate or biased evidence. Consider this statement: “Two students in Math 103 were nervous before their recent test; therefore, all students in that class must have text anxiety.” This is a hasty generalization because the second part of the statement (the generalization about all students in the class) is inadequate to support what the writer noted about only two students.
• A circular argument merely restates what has already been said. Consider this statement: “The Hate U Give is a well-written book because Angie Thomas, its author, is a good novelist.” The statement that Thomas is a good novelist does not explain why her book is well written.

In addition to checking work for fallacies, consider propaganda, information worded to endorse a particular viewpoint, often of a political nature. Two common types of propaganda are bandwagon and fear.

• In getting on the bandwagon, the writer encourages readers to conform to a popular trend and endorse an opinion, a movement, or a person because everyone else is doing so. Consider this statement: “Everyone is behind the idea that 7 a.m. classes are too early and should be changed to at least 8 a.m. Shouldn’t you endorse this sensible idea, too?”
• In using fear, the writer presents a dire situation, usually followed by what could be done to prevent it. Consider this statement: “Our country is at a turning point. Enemies threaten us with their power, and our democracy is at risk of being crushed. The government needs a change, and Paul Windhaus is just the man to see we get that change.” This quotation appeals to fear about the future of the country and implies that electing a certain individual will solve the predicted problems.

Organize the Paper

To begin, write your thesis at the top of a blank page. Then, select points from your brainstorming and reporters’ questions to organize and develop support for your thesis. Remember that you can revise your thesis whenever needed.

To begin organizing her paper on increased mental health services on her college campus, the student wrote this thesis at the top of a page:

Because mental health is a major concern at Powell College South, students could benefit from expanding the services offered.

Next she decided the sequence in which to present the points. In a position or an argument essay, she could choose one of two methods: thesis-first organization or delayed-thesis organization.

Thesis-First Organization

Leading with a thesis tells readers from the beginning where you stand on the issue. In this organization, the thesis occupies both the first and last position in the essay, making it easy for readers to remember.

• Introduce the issue and assert your thesis. Make sure the issue has at least two debatable sides. Your thesis establishes the position from which you will argue. Writers often state their thesis as the last sentence in the first paragraph, as the student writer has done:

The problem of mental health has become front-page news in the last two months. Hill’s Herald, Powell College South’s newspaper, reported 14 separate incidents of students who sought counseling but could not get appointments with college staff. Since mental health problems are widespread among the student population, the college should hire more healthcare workers to address this problem.

• Summarize the counterclaims. Before elaborating on your claims, explain the opposition’s claims. Including this information at the beginning gives your argument something to focus on—and refute—throughout the paper. If you ignore counterclaims, your argument may appear incomplete, and readers may think you have not researched your topic sufficiently. When addressing a counterclaim, state it clearly, show empathy for those who have that view, and then immediately refute it with support developed through reasoning and evidence. Squeezing the counterclaims between the thesis and the evidence reserves the strongest places—the opening and closing—for your position. It is important to note,  however, that the organization of a counterargument within a paper is not fixed and can potentially work anywhere in the body, depending on drafting techniques.

Counterclaim 1: Powell College South already employs two counselors, and that number is sufficient to meet the needs of the student population.end student sample text

Counterclaim 2: Powell College South students live in a metropolitan area large enough to handle their mental health needs.

• Refute the counterclaims. Look for weak spots in the opposition’s argument, and point them out. Use your opponent’s language to show you have read closely but still find problems with the claim. This is the way the writer refuted the first counterclaim:

While Powell College South does employ two counselors, those counselors are overworked and often have no time slots available for students who wish to make appointments.

• State and explain your points, and then support them with evidence. Present your points clearly and precisely, using logos to explain and cite your evidence. The writer plans to use a problem-solution reasoning strategy to elaborate on these three points using these pieces of evidence:

Point 1: Wait times are too long.

Kay Payne, one of the campus counselors, states that the wait time for an appointment with her is approximately 10 days.

Point 2: Mental health issues are widespread within the student community.

In a recent on-campus student survey, 75% of 250 students say they have had some kind of mental health issues at some point in their life.

Point 3: The staff-to-student ratio is too high.

The International Accreditation of Counseling Services recommends one full-time equivalent staff member for every 1,000 to 1,500 students.

• Restate your position as a conclusion. Near the end of your paper, synthesize your accumulated evidence into a broad general position, and restate your thesis in slightly different language.

The number of students who need mental health counseling is alarming. The recent news articles that attest to their not being able to schedule appointments add to the alarm. While Powell College South offers some mental health counseling, the current number of counselors and others who provide health care is insufficient to handle the well-being of all its students. Action must be taken to address this problem.

Delayed-Thesis Organization

In this organizational pattern, introduce the issue and discuss the arguments for and against it, but wait to take a side until late in the essay. By delaying the stance, you show readers you are weighing the evidence, and you arouse their curiosity about your position. This is a viable strategy for audiences that might be hostile or more likely to disagree with your stance. Near the end of the paper, you explain that after carefully considering both pros and cons, you have arrived at the most reasonable position.

• Introduce the issue. Here, the writer begins with action that sets the scene of the problem.

  Tapping her foot nervously, Serena looked at her watch again. She had been waiting three hours to see a mental health counselor at Powell College South, and she did not think she could wait much longer. She had to get to work.

• Summarize the claims for one position. Before stating which side you support, explain how the opposition views the issue. This body paragraph presents evidence about the topic of more counselors:

  Powell College South has two mental health counselors on staff. If the college hires more counselors, more office space will have to be created. Currently, Pennington Hall could accommodate those counselors. Additional counselors would allow more students to receive counseling.

• Refute the claims you just stated. While still not stating your position, point out the other side of the issue.

  While office space is available in Pennington Hall, that location is far from ideal. It is in a wooded area of campus, six blocks from the nearest dorm. Students who would go there might be afraid to walk through the woods or might be afraid to walk that distance. The location might deter them from making appointments.

• Now give the best reasoning and evidence to support your position. Because this is a delayed-thesis organization, readers are still unsure of your stance. This section should be the longest and most carefully documented part of the paper. After summarizing and refuting claims, the writer then elaborates on these three points using problem-solution reasoning supported by this evidence, implying her position before moving to the conclusion, where she states her thesis.

Point 1: Wait times are too long.

Kay Payne, one of the campus counselors, states that the wait time for an appointment with her is approximately 10 days.

Point 2: Mental health issues are widespread within the student community.

In a recent on-campus student survey, 75% of 250 students say they have had some kind of mental health issues at some point in their life.end student sample text

Point 3: The staff-to-student ratio is too high.

The International Association of Counseling Services recommends one full-time equivalent staff member for every 1,000 to 1,500 students.

• State your thesis in your conclusion. Your rhetorical strategy is this: after giving each side a fair hearing, you have arrived at the most reasonable conclusion.

  According to the American Psychological Association, more than 40 percent of all college students suffer from some form of anxiety. Powell College South students are no different from college students elsewhere: they deserve to have adequate mental health counseling.

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Composition

Drafting begins when you organize your evidence or research notes and then put them into some kind of written form. As you write, focus on building body paragraphs through the techniques presented in Part 3 of this textbook that show you how to support your position and add evidence. Using a variety of evidence types builds credibility with readers. Remember that the recursiveness of the writing process allows you to move from composing to gathering evidence and back to brainstorming ideas or to organizing your draft at any time. Move around the writing process as needed by your assignment, your composition style, and your personality.

Stay flexible by keeping in mind that a first draft is just the beginning—you will revise it into better work in later drafts. Your first or rough draft is sometimes called a discovery draft because you are discovering how to shape your paper, which ideas to include, and how to support those ideas. These suggestions and graphic organizer may be helpful for your first draft:

• Write your thesis at the top of the paper.
• Compose your body paragraphs: those that support your argument through reasoning strategies and those that address counterclaims.
• Leave your introduction, conclusion, and title for later drafts.

Use a graphic organizer like the table below to focus points, reasoning, and evidence for body paragraphs. You are free to reword your thesis, reasoning, counterclaim(s), refutation of counterclaim(s), concrete evidence, and explanation/elaboration/clarification at any time. You are also free to adjust the order in which you present your reasoning, counterclaim(s), and refuting of counterclaim(s).