Faculty Mentor: Hakan Yavuz (Political Science, University of Utah)

 

Abstract

In recent years, the political leaders of countries such as China and Russia have embraced the concept of the “civilization state,” a notion that challenges the mainstream conception of statehood. According to this framework, certain states are far greater than mere political units – they are entities with a special purpose to act as guardians of a unique civilization. Proponents of the civilization state regularly reject Western norms and values, arguing that concepts like liberal democracy and human rights are not universal but rather rules specific to Western civilization. They contend that “civilization states” have the right to follow the cultural norms of their unique civilization, even if they clash with currently accepted international standards of governance. This concept has gained an especially prominent role in Indian politics, where many activists and politicians are seeking to redefine India as a uniquely Hindu civilization state. India’s ruling political establishment, under the leadership of Prime Minister Narendra Modi and the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), has championed this reshaping of India’s identity through the ideology of Hindutva. This essay will examine India’s evolving identity through the civilization state argument, exploring the proponents of this ideology and the motivations driving its popularity.

Political and Social Context

To fully grasp the BJP’s attempt to redefine India as a “Hindu civilization state,” it is essential to consider the cultural and political landscape in which the country exists. As of April 2023, India surpassed China to become the world’s most populous nation, exceeding 1.429 billion inhabitants. This massive population is marked by an extraordinary level of diversity, being home to over 2,000 recognized ethnic groups, each with unique histories, traditions, dialects, and cultural norms.

India is also noted for its remarkable religious diversity. Hindus comprise a sizeable majority, making up 79.8% of India’s population. There also exists a substantive Muslim community, which comprises 14.2% of the overall population, alongside smaller communities of Sikhs, Christians, Jains, and Buddhists.

This incredible diversity has been a source of both tension and conflict, leading to the development of two distinct visions of what India “is.” The first, supported by organizations such as the Indian National Congress (INC), characterizes India as a secular, pluralistic state – one in which all who live in India are considered Indian, regardless of religious or cultural background. The second, advocated by the BJP, defines India as a uniquely Hindu society.

This latter perspective has gained increasing prominence under the ruling BJP government, which has sought to redefine India’s history and political order to fit its narratives.

Hindutva and the BJP

Hindutva, meaning “Hindu-ness,” is the governing ideology of the BJP. Proponents of Hindutva define India through a cultural lens, holding Indian society to be synonymous with “Hindu civilization.” Being “Indian” is understood as being one who practices the Hindu faith or lives by the cultural and social standards of Hinduism. Non-Hindus are viewed as less Indian or even as threats to the social fabric of a uniquely Hindu society.

Hindutva has a distinct conception of the Indian government’s role, one that contrasts sharply with the Western model of statehood. Reminiscent of the rhetoric of other self-proclaimed “civilization states,” adherents of Hindutva believe that the government has a unique responsibility to uphold and protect“Hindu civilization.” The Indian state is not viewed as merely a political unit but as the legitimate guardian of Hindu culture, values, and way of life. Hindutva strongly opposes multiculturalism, which is seen as a threat to India’s identity as the representative of Hinduism. Instead, it emphasizes a homogenized Hindu-Indian identity as the foundation for national unity. Highly controversial policies implemented by the BJP-led government, which give preferential treatment to the Hindus or seek to limit the growth of India’s Muslim population, are thus viewed as necessary actions to preserve India’s character as a Hindu civilization state.

Fundamental ideals of Western governance, such as secularism, freedom of religion, and inclusivity, are largely rejected by Hindu nationalists in favor of promoting a uniquely Hindu governance. This philosophy has drawn the sharp criticism of many Western observers, who label the BJP’s ideology as exclusionary. Critics point to the BJP policies that have marginalized non-Hindu communities, including Muslims, Sikhs, and Jains, as evidence of the threat that Hindutva poses to democracy and human rights. The BJP’s rebuttal to these claims is that the West simply doesn’t understand their unique civilizational worldview, contending that Western ideals are not compatible with India’s identity. Hindu nationalists accuse the West of attempting to impose a Eurocentric worldview on India, one that they argue does not align with their cultural and religious heritage.

Since 2014, the BJP has held control of the Indian government, securing majorities in both houses of the Indian legislature. Dominating Indian politics, the BJP is believed to be the largest political party in the world, claiming to have over 180 million members. Under its rule, India has experienced marked democratic backsliding and faced significant international scrutiny for implementing policies perceived as discriminatory toward non-Hindus, especially Muslims.

The BJP is viewed by many as the direct successor of the Bharatiya Jana Sangh (BJS), an extreme Indian nationalist party founded in 1951 and the political arm of the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS), a Hindu paramilitary organization. The BJS sought to establish a Hindu-centric state and was heavily involved in promoting “Hindu supremacy.” The BJS, alongside the RSS, hoped to defend the Hindu community from perceived threats, particularly from Muslims. The organization actively opposed the spread of Islam within India, labeling Muslims as invaders. The organization was criticized for its use of violence and intimidation against Indian Muslims. Despite this controversy, the RSS continues to operate to this day, claiming to have over 5 million members. The influence of the RSS has expanded in recent years, emboldened by the political success of the BJP.

Today, the actions and ideology of the BJP are largely shaped by its leader, Prime Minister Narendra Modi, who is himself a former RSS member. Modi is an extremely controversial figure, having played a pivotal role in bringing more extreme nationalist ideologies into mainstream politics over the past decade. As Prime Minister, Modi has consistently pursued populist Hindu policies, including promoting the construction of Hindu temples and banning the sale of cattle for slaughter. Modi has sought to present himself as a deeply religious figure to the Indian electorate, publicly acting as a chief patron of religious Hindu rituals or leading temple consecration ceremonies. Critics accuse Modi of fostering a cult of personality, eroding India’s democratic institutions, and promoting discriminatory attitudes toward the country’s non-Hindu population. Opponents point to Modi’s particular animosity towards India’s Muslim community, the nation’s second-largest religious group. In 2019, the BJP-led government passed the controversial “Citizenship Act,” which provided a pathway to citizenship for all refugees fleeing religious persecution – except Muslims. The law sparked a huge backlash amongst India’s Muslim community, leading to mass protests. Modi’s repeated escalations with neighboring Pakistan and assertion of control over the disputed Kashmir region led to further unrest amongst Muslims. Modi has openly defended his anti- Muslim sentiments, consistently referring to Muslims as “infiltrators” who pose a threat to India’s stability and cultural values. Modi justifies these actions by claiming that, as Prime Minister, he must defend the Hindu way of life and the nation’s identity as a uniquely Hindu state.

Redefining India’s History

To justify Hindutva’s definition of India as a Hindu civilization state, Hindu nationalists embrace a distorted historical narrative that frames India’s development as a continuous struggle between Hindus and foreign invaders. Many of these nationalists draw inspiration from a semi-mythical “golden age” of Hindu civilization, in which they believe Hindu culture flourished. According to this view, ancient India was a monolithic society united by the common cultural and religious practices of Hinduism. However, most experts agree that this historical narrative has little basis in reality, but only emerged as a political construction in the modern era. Even while many historians and archaeologists question the existence of this mythical Hindu civilization, adherents of Hindutva continue to emphasize the need for India to return to the ideals of this imagined golden age.

Hindu nationalists argue that this mythical golden age was interrupted by centuries of occupation and oppression, beginning with the Delhi Sultanate in the 12th Century. They claim that India’s Hindu population was subjected to brutal domination by successive, cruel Islamic empires, which inflicted atrocities and ultimately hindered the development of Hindu civilization. When Islamic rule ended as the British Raj replaced the Mughal Empire, Hindu nationalists asserted that Hindus continued to suffer under Western colonial occupation. For Hindu nationalists, it was only when India regained full independence in 1947 that Hindu civilization could once again thrive.

Hindu nationalists view the British partition of India as having established their state as having a uniquely Hindu character, in contrast to the uniquely Muslim Pakistan and Bangladesh. Through adhering to Hindutva, India can be reborn as a modern Hindu nation, where the Hindu civilization will once again be able to chart its own course. On this uniquely Hindu path, nationalists believe that India must safeguard its civilization against corrupting external influences, including Islamic and Western ideologies, to prevent being dominated by foreign powers once more.

The Appeal of Hindutva

The motivations driving millions of Indians to support the BJP and Hindutva are complex and multifaceted. For some, Hindutva serves as a powerful political tool, allowing leaders to tap into populist sentiments to consolidate power, while for others, it provides a compelling framework for understanding what it means to be truly Indian.

In the eyes of many Hindu nationalists, India lacks a strong unifying force to bind its society together. India is incredibly varied, being comprised of a myriad of different ethnic groups, languages, and cultural traditions, making it difficult to find common ground. The sheer diversity of India has led to some concerns about whether the country can effectively function as a unified state. Hindutva, however, provides a solution to this problem by positioning Hinduism and its cultural values as the foundational bedrock of Indian society. By framing religion as a central unifying factor, Hindutva offers a common ground for millions, even while excluding millions who do not fit within its narrow framework of what an Indian should be. For many, this religious and cultural unity feels more meaningful than other potential sources of national identity, such as a shared constitution or market economy.

Another powerful motivator behind the rise of Hindutva is the search for a clear sense of identity in post-colonial India. The modern state of India was born out of a colonial project, with the nation’s modern borders and parliamentary systems being largely shaped by the British Empire. This has left many Indians grappling with questions about what it truly means to be Indian and what India “is.” For struggling nationalists, Hindutva provides straightforward, easy answers to all of these questions: India is the representation of Hindu civilization, and to be Indian means to subscribe to the ideals, beliefs, and norms of Hinduism.

Yet another driving force behind Hindutva’s rise is the desire to defend India’s way of life against perceived external threats. The BJP often employs rhetoric that frames the Hindu way of life as under attack by groups viewed as “non-Indian,” particularly Muslims. With Muslims forming the second-largest religious community in India, Hindu nationalists often view the spread of Islam as the largest threat to their way of life. This belief has justified the implementation of discriminatory policies aimed at Muslim communities in the name of preserving Hindu civilization. The hegemony of the West and the encroachment of Western liberal values, such as secularism and multiculturalism, are additionally seen as dangers to India’s identity. Hindu nationalists often emphatically reject Western norms, claiming that Westernization is eroding their culture and is detrimental to the flourishing of a Hindu society. In this context, the West’s criticism of the BJP is often viewed as a positive confirmation that India is forging its own distinctly “Hindu” path. For nationalists, Hindutva offers a way to defend the Indian way of life in a chaotic and uncertain world.

A final motivator behind Hindutva’s success is the BJP’s use of Hindu nationalism as an effective populist political strategy. India is a nation afflicted with a myriad of problems, including widespread poverty, corruption, wealth inequality, and social problems like alcoholism. Many Indians seek easy explanations for these problems or are searching for someone to blame. The BJP’s populist rhetoric resonates with many Hindus, which uses non-Hindus as a scapegoat for their country’s troubles. The explanations offered by the BJP for India’s woes, although often overly simplistic and faulty, have gained widespread appeal, contributing to the party’s political success and helping it secure a strong base of support.

Conclusion

Modi and the BJP have effectively utilized Hindutva and the civilization state argument to fundamentally reshape the discourse surrounding India’s identity. This strategy has led to remarkable political success, mobilizing large segments of the Indian electorate and reshaping government policy to align with its agenda over the past decade. Despite concerns about democratic backsliding and rising intolerance of non-Hindu communities, the party’s promotion of Hindutva continues to resonate deeply with millions of Hindu nationalists, offering a compelling vision of India’s past and future.

Despite its electoral success, Hindutva’s civilization state project faces substantial challenges. Divisions in culture, caste, language, and religion continue to play a large role in Indian society, while successive economic struggles threaten the continued popularity of the BJP rule. The voices of opposition groups that disagree with the BJP’s narrow definition of India have grown louder, especially in non-Hindu communities. Whether the BJP and Hindutva succeed in permanently redefining India’s identity as a “civilization state” remains an open question, one that will be continually debated by Indians in the coming years.

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