Inferring Meaning from Context

Part of reading quickly and effectively is being willing to let go of certainty. Many students feel anxious when they don’t understand 100% of what they read, but reading comprehension comes with time and repetition, so “slowing down” to ensure complete understanding of a text can be counterproductive because it reduces the amount of text you read. Unless you are reading an instruction manual, you should feel comfortable with guessing when you don’t understand words and technical information.

Academic reading requires students to quickly assemble “clues” and evidence to make sense of technical text. Making guesses or inferences is strategic and purposeful and requires both mental flexibility and focus. Most importantly, you must let go of your fears and anxiety, and immerse yourself in a text. According to research, proficient readers use their own experience as well as the text to construct meaning, and you shouldn’t be afraid to draw upon your prior knowledge to help you learn new words and ideas.

How to Infer

One way that readers make inferences is by using context clues to figure out the meaning of an unknown word. When encountering new vocabulary, make a prediction about the unknown word’s meaning. Continue reading and note the contextual clues occurring before and after the unknown word to see if your prediction might be accurate. Inferring the meaning of new words from context is one of the most effective ways to develop vocabulary skills.

It may not be possible for you to use context clues to guess all the unknown words in a text. Some sentences provide little context to assist readers in constructing a definition. An example of this is the quote: “We heard the back door open, and then recognized the buoyant footsteps of Uncle Larry.” This sentence provides little helpful information in determining the meaning of the word buoyant. In this case, you could consult a dictionary, but you could also choose to skip it!

Skipping unknown words is not only a reading strategy, but an extremely useful one. As you encounter buoyant in other contexts, your brain will construct meaning over time. By reading extensively and frequently, we can learn vocabulary without consciously trying as our brains construct meaning on a text level, rather than a word by word level.^[1]

Types of Context Clues

There are several types of context clues, including definition clues, synonym or antonym clues, and example/illustration, and general contextual clues. Each of these different types of context clues are explained below. Additionally, examples of the types of context clues are provided from the textbook excerpt: “The Election of Franklin D. Roosevelt.” You may already be familiar with many of the target words. These sentences have been selected because they provide easily comprehensible examples of sentence structure and word patterns that provide context clues for word inference.

Definition Clues

It is not uncommon for textbook writers or lecturers to provide the definition of a technical term in academic settings to increase the understanding of their audience. These definitions in text are often set off by parentheses, commas, dashes, or colons.

Consider these examples. The definition is underlined in each.

1. Some celestial bodies, such as the planets and stars, can be seen with the naked eye.
2. There was a lot of tangible evidence, including fingerprints and DNA, to prove them guilty.
3. There is a 30 percent chance of precipitation, such as snow or sleet.^[2]

Many times the definition is a bit more subtle as demonstrated by the in-text example below.

Synonym or Antonym Clues

Synonym clues, similar to definition clues, are often set off by parentheses, commas, and dashes. They are a restatement of the unknown word in simpler terms. Antonym clues are often found in sentences and paragraphs that show contrast between two unlike terms.

Synonym examples:

1. It was an idyllic day; sunny, warm and perfect for a walk in the park.
2. Her animosity, or hatred, of her sister had divided the family.
3. This situation is a conundrum – a puzzle.

Antonym examples:

1. There is great prosperity in the country but many citizens are living in poverty.
2. Marty is gregarious, not like his brother who is quiet and shy.
3. She is a famous singing star in her country but unknown to the rest of the world^[3]

Consider the following in-text examples:

Example/Illustration Clues

These types of clues provide an example or illustration of the unknown word and are often introduced by colons (:) or by the following terms: “such as, for example, and like.” It is common for examples or illustration clues to be provided in the form of listed items.

1. During the demonstration, a skirmish broke out and the police were called to restore order.
2. The cat has a kind disposition and would never bite or claw anyone.
3. Something in the refrigerator has a putrid odor; the smell was rotten when we opened the door.^[4]

Consider the following in-text examples:

General Contextual Clues

These type of clues require extra detective work to infer the meaning of the unknown word. General contextual clues can be provided in a sentence, surrounding sentences, or throughout a paragraph.

1. Eating nutritious food is just as important as regular exercise.
2. Sometimes he is perplexed by Sudoku puzzles, but others find them much easier to solve than a crossword puzzle.^[5]

You will notice in these sentences that an exact meaning is not provided with a definition, synonym, antonym, or an example, but that there is enough contextual information to help you guess the meaning.

Consider the following in-text examples:

One reason that we “skip” unknown words is because the meaning of an unknown word can be provided by context in a later paragraph. The best learning attitude to adopt when reading a text with unknown words is to be patient, let go of control, and focus. Be creative and strategic: the most effective learners take risks!

Instructions

Assignment 1

Exercise 1

Instructions: Infer the meaning of the bolded word using context clues. After explaining your inference in your own words, explain how you guessed the meaning. Power tip: Point out the context clues or sentence patterns that helped you construct the meaning. Refer to the examples provided in “Types of Context Clues” for help.

1. The teacher abhorred cruelty to animals, feeling a deep revulsion toward any form of mistreatment.
   1. Guess the meaning:
   2. Explain your guess:
2. The nefarious actions of the villain shocked the entire town, as he was revealed to be involved in illegal activities.
   1. Guess the meaning:
   2. Explain your guess:
3. The ambiguous instructions left the students confused about what to do.
   1. Guess the meaning:
   2. Explain your guess:
4. Bill felt remorse, or shame, for his harsh words.
   1. Guess the meaning:
   2. Explain your guess:
5.  The book provides a comprehensive overview of the topic, covering all key aspects.
   1. Guess the meaning:
   2. Explain your guess:^[6]

Exercise 2

Instructions: The paragraph below has been excerpted from a textbook chapter, so many unfamiliar terms are defined in the text. Use the context clues in the paragraph below to infer the meaning of the underlined words.

A half century later, British bacteriologist Frederick Griffith was perhaps the first person to show that hereditary information could be transferred from one cell to another “horizontally,” rather than by descent. In 1928, he reported the first demonstration of bacterial transformation, a process in which external DNA is taken up by a cell, thereby changing morphology and physiology. He was working with Streptococcus pneumoniae, the bacterium that causes pneumonia. Griffith worked with two strains, rough (R) and smooth (S). The R strain is non-pathogenic (does not cause disease) and is called rough because its outer surface is a cell wall and lacks a capsule; as a result, the cell surface appears uneven under the microscope. The S strain is pathogenic (disease-causing) and has a capsule outside its cell wall. As a result, it has a smooth appearance under the microscope.

Note: You can use the Internet/dictionary if you wish to look up the definition of the underlined work, but guess first. The “guessed” meaning needs to be in your own words or words from the text to receive credit.

1. Hereditary
   1. Guess the meaning:
   2. Dictionary meaning:
2. Bacterial transformation
   1. Guess the meaning:
   2. Dictionary meaning:
3. Non-pathogenic
   1. Guess the meaning:
   2. Dictionary meaning:
4. Pathogenic
   1. Guess the meaning:
   2. Dictionary meaning:

Assignment 2

Exercise 1

Instructions: Infer the meaning of the bolded word using context clues. After explaining your inference in your own words, explain how you guessed the meaning. Power tip: Point out the context clues or sentence patterns that helped you construct the meaning. Refer to the examples provided in “Types of Context Clues” for help.

1. The diligent student studied for hours every night to prepare for the exam.
   1. Guess the meaning:
   2. Explain your guess:
2.  Despite the seriousness of the situation, he remained nonchalant and unconcerned.
   1. Guess the meaning:
   2. Explain your guess:
3. The host greeted the guests with a cordial smile and handshake.
   1. Guess the meaning:
   2. Explain your guess:
4.  Her talent surpassed that of any other musician in the orchestra.
   1. Guess the meaning:
   2. Explain your guess:
5.  I am willing to hike in the mountains, but he is reluctant because it gets so cold walking up and down the trails.
   1. Guess the meaning:
   2. Explain your guess:^[7]

Exercise 2

Instructions: In the paragraph below, similar terms are used more than once. Use the context of the paragraph to infer the meaning of the underlined words. Use your knowledge of the word form (verb, adverb, noun, adjective) to help you guess.

We have negotiated a Pan-American convention embodying the principle of non-intervention. We have abandoned the Platt Amendment which gave us the right to intervene in the internal affairs of the Republic of Cuba. We have withdrawn American marines from Haiti. We have signed a new treaty which places our relations with Panama on a mutually satisfactory basis. We have undertaken a series of trade agreements with other American countries to our mutual commercial profit. At the request of two neighboring Republics, I hope to give assistance in the final settlement of the last serious boundary dispute between any of the American Nations.

Note: You can use the Internet/dictionary if you wish to look up the definition of the underlined work, but guess first. The “guessed” meaning needs to be in your own words or words from the text to receive credit.

1. Non-intervention
   1. Guess the meaning:
   2. Dictionary meaning:
2. Intervene
   1. Guess the meaning:
   2. Dictionary meaning:
3. Mutually
   1. Guess the meaning:
   2. Dictionary meaning:
4. Mutual
   1. Guess the meaning:
   2. Dictionary meaning:

Assignment 3

Exercise 1

Instructions: Infer the meaning of the bolded word using context clues. After explaining your inference in your own words, explain how you guessed the meaning. Power tip: Point out the context clues or sentence patterns that helped you construct the meaning. Refer to the examples provided in “Types of Context Clues” for help.

1. Some people believe in the existence of an omnipotent being who has unlimited power.
   1. Guess the meaning:
   2. Explain your guess:
2. The athlete’s notorious behavior off the field overshadowed his achievements on it.
   1. Guess the meaning:
   2. Explain your guess:
3. The scientist presented evidence to refute the opposing theory.
   1. Guess the meaning:
   2. Explain your guess:
4. After his breakup, he felt forlorn and lonely, unsure of what to do next.
   1. Guess the meaning:
   2. Explain your guess:
5. The witness provided a credible account of the events, which helped convict the suspect.
   1. Guess the meaning:
   2. Explain your guess:^[8]

Exercise 2

Instructions: The paragraph below uses descriptive language. Use the context of the words surrounding the word and the description of the scenarios to infer the meaning of the underlined words. Use your knowledge of the word form (verb, adverb, noun, adjective) to help you guess.

There is a hush over all Europe, nay, over all the world, broken only by the dull thud of Japanese bombs falling on Chinese cities, on Chinese universities or near British and American ships. But then, China is a long way off, so why worry? The Chinese are fighting for what the founders of the American Constitution in their stately language called: “Life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness.” And they seem to be fighting very well. Many good judges think they are going to win. Anyhow, let’s wish them luck! Let’s give them a wave of encouragement—as your President did last week, when he gave notice about ending the commercial treaty. After all, the suffering Chinese are fighting our battle, the battle of democracy. They are defending the soil, the good earth, that has been theirs since the dawn of time against cruel and unprovoked aggression. Give them a cheer across the ocean—no one knows whose turn it may be next. If this habit of military dictatorships’ breaking into other people’s lands with bomb and shell and bullet, stealing the property and killing the proprietors, spreads too widely, we may none of us be able to think of summer holidays for quite a while.

Note: You can use the Internet/dictionary if you wish to look up the definition of the underlined work, but guess first. The “guessed” meaning needs to be in your own words or words from the text to receive credit.

1. Thud
   1. Guess the meaning:
   2. Dictionary meaning:
2. Stately
   1. Guess the meaning:
   2. Dictionary meaning:
3. Unprovoked
   1. Guess the meaning:
   2. Dictionary meaning:
4. Proprietors
   1. Guess the meaning:
   2. Dictionary meaning: