7: Verbal

7.1: Language and Meaning

Codes:  Cultural agreed on and ever-changing systems of symbols that help us organize, understand, and generate meaning

Connotation:  Definitions that are based on emotion- or experience-based associations people have with a word

Denotation:  Definitions that are accepted by the language group as a whole; the dictionary definition of a word

Displacement:  The ability to talk about events that are removed in space or time from a speaker and situation

Grammar:  The rules that govern how words are used to make phrases and sentences

Language acquisition:  The process by which we learn to understand, produce, and use words to communicate within a given language group

Morpheme:  The smallest unit of meaning in a language

Phoneme: The sounds of a language

Semantics: The study of the structure and meaning of words

Symbol:  Something that stands in for or represents something else.  Letters are symbols we use to communicate

Syntax: The study of sentence structure

Triangle of Meaning:  A model of communication that indicates the relationship among a thought, symbol, and referent and highlights the indirect relationship between the symbol and referent

7.2: Functions of Language

Commissives: Utterances that convey a speaker’s commitment to a certain course of action; for example, “I guarantee” or “I pledge.”

Directives: Utterances that try to get another person to do something

Dragging up the past: An unsupportive message that occurs when people use negative past experiences as a tactic for not discussing a current situation

Esperanto: Auxiliary language that was intended to serve as a common international language; means “hopeful”; developed to promote mutual understanding, more effective diplomacy and peaceful coexistence

Feeling: A type of verbal expression that communicates emotions

Global labels: An unsupportive message that is judgmental or a sweeping generalization

Judgmental “you” messages: Unsupportive accusatory messages that are usually generalized overstatements about another person that go beyond labeling, but still do not describe specific behavior in a productive way; for example, “You’re never going to be able to hold down a job.”

Need: A type of verbal expression that communicates wants or requests help or support

Negative comparisons: An unsupportive message that holds a person up to a supposed standard or characteristics of another person that can lead to feelings of inferiority or resentment

Neologism: Newly coined or used words just brought into linguistic existence

Observation: A type of verbal expression the reports sensory experience or memories

Sarcasm: An unsupportive message that represents passive-aggressive behavior through which a person indirectly communicates negative feelings

Slang: New or adapted words that are specific to a group, content, and/or time period; regarded as less formal; represent people’s creative play with language

Supportive messages: Messages communicated in an open, honest, and nonconfrontational way

Thought: A type of verbal expression that shares a conclusion about or judgment of experiences and observations

Threats: An unsupportive message that threatens someone with violence or some other negative consequence; for example, “if you don’t stop that, you’re going to regret it.”

Unsupportive messages: Messages that make others respond defensively; lead to feelings of separation and actual separation or dissolution of a relationship

Verbal expressions: Language that helps us communicate our observations, thoughts, feelings, and needs

7.3: Using Words Well

Abstraction ladder: A model used to illustrate how language can range from concrete to abstract

Affective language: Language used to express a person’s feelings and create similar feelings in another person

Annoyance swearing: Swearing used to manage stress and tension

Contaminated messages: Statements that include missed or misleading expressions

Evocative language: Words that remind the receiver of something else such as an emotion or thought; can lead to physical reactions, build expectation, tension, and establish moods
Civility: Following social norms and standards when we communicate; interacting ethically and competently

Facts: Conclusions based on direct observation or group consensus

Figurative language: A word or phrase that deviates from expectations in some way in meaning or usage

I language: A skill that presents information by using concrete and descriptive language and owning emotions and thoughts; includes a description of behavior, an owned feeling statement and the reason for the feeling.

Inference-observation confusion: The misperception of an inference as an observation

Inferences: Conclusions based on thoughts or speculation, but not direct observation

Jargon: Specialized words used by a certain group or profession; for example, the military uses acronyms in daily language use (such as DOD – Department of Defense, DOE – Director of Engingeering)

Judgments: Expressions of approval or disapproval that are subjective and not verifiable

Metaphor: An implicit comparison of two things that are not alike and/or are not typically associated

Partial messages: Expressions that are missing relevant information and can lead to misunderstanding and conflict

Personification: The attribution of human qualities or characteristics of other living things to nonhuman objects or abstract concepts

Polarizing language: Language that presents people, ideas, or situations as polar opposites; for example, saying “all cops are corrupt” when a police officer says “all drug users are scum.”

Simile: A direct comparison of two things using the words like or as

Social swearing: Swearing that creates social bonds or manages impressions (to seem cool or attractive)

Whole messages: Relevant types of expressions needed to most effectively communicate in a given situation, including what you see, what you think, and you feel, and what you need

7.4: Language, Society, and Culture

Accents: Distinct styles of pronunciation

Adjacency pairs: Related communication structures that come one after the other (adjacent to each other) in an interaction; turn-taking units of speech; for example, questions are followed by answers, compliments are followed by a thank you, etc.

Code-switching: Changes in accent, dialect, or language to modify speaking in various settings; for example, altering an accent to appear more credible

Communication Accommodation Theory: A theory that explores why and how people modify their communication to fit situational, social, cultural, and relational contexts

Convergence: A strategy used when people use communication to emphasize the similarities between their conversational partner and themselves

Cultural bias: A skewed way of viewing or talking about a group that is typically negative

Dialects: Versions of languages that have distinct words, grammar, and pronunciation

Divergence: A strategy used when people use communication to emphasize the difference between their conversational partner and themselves

Race: A concept used to describe a group of people who share physical characteristics such as skin color and facial features, have similar social or cultural identities and ancestral backgrounds