The Pancreas and Pancreatic Hormones

Objective 9

Describe the location and structure of the pancreas and the cell types of the endocrine pancreas found in the pancreatic islets. Compare the roles of glucagon and insulin in controlling blood glucose levels.

 

The Endocrine Pancreas

The pancreas is located posterior to the stomach and near the curve of the duodenum. It consists of a head, a body, and a tail. The pancreas is both an endocrine and an exocrine organ. Ninety-nine percent of the pancreas is made up of clusters of cells called acini. The cells contained in the acini produce digestive enzymes that are secreted into the small intestine. The exocrine function of the pancreas will be discussed in more detail in Unit 18.

Within the pancreas, among the acini, there are 1-2 million tiny clusters of endocrine tissue called pancreatic islets, or islets of Langerhans.

Diagram showing the anatomy of the pancreas, with an inset showing microscopic anatomy.

The pancreas is comprised of two types of tissue. The exocrine pancreas, which secretes fluid and enzymes which aid digestion. This is about 99% of the pancreatic tissue.

There is also an endocrine pancreas, which we will focus on in this objective. The endocrine pancreas is made up of a minority of pancreatic tissue, that is found within the islets.

Diagram showing the pancreas with a detail of the pancreatic islets.

Table listing properties of the pancreatic islet cells.

Diagram illustrating the different cell types of the pancreatic islets.The pancreatic islets contain four different types of endocrine cells (alpha, beta, delta, and F cells), each secreting separate hormones. Glucagon functions to raise blood sugar. Insulin lowers blood sugar levels. Somatostatin inhibits the release of insulin and glucagon, and pancreatic polypeptide acts as an inhibitor of digestion. The focus of this unit will be on glucagon and insulin.

Glucagon and insulin are antagonists. 

 

Alpha Cells Secrete Glucagon

Low blood glucose levels stimulate the alpha cells to secrete glucagon.

Glucagon activates multiple mechanisms to increase the blood glucose level:

  1. Stimulates the liver to convert its stores of glycogen back into glucose (glycogenolysis). This glucose is then released into the circulation raising blood glucose levels.
  2. Stimulates the liver to take up amino acids from the blood and convert them into glucose (gluconeogenesis).
  3. Stimulates lipolysis, the breakdown of stored triglycerides into free fatty acids and glycerol. Some of the free glycerol travels to the liver where it is converted to glucose, another form of gluconeogenesis.

Beta Cells Secrete Insulin

Elevated blood glucose levels stimulate the beta cells to release insulin. Insulin acts on cells throughout the body in a number of different ways, all of which will result in a decrease in an individual’s blood sugar:

  1. increases facilitated diffusion of glucose out of the blood and into the cells by increasing the number of glucose transporters;
  2. increases amino acid uptake into cells and increases protein synthesis;
  3. increases fatty acid synthesis;
  4. converts glucose to glycogen; and
  5. decreases gluconeogenesis.

Diagram showing the feedback loops controlled by insulin and glucagon.

Clinical Connection

Diabetes mellitus is a disorder of insulin production and secretion, and/or the target cells’ responsiveness to insulin. Type I diabetes is an autoimmune disease where the beta cells of the pancreas are attacked. Individuals with type 1 diabetes do not produce insulin so must rely on artificial insulin to survive. Type II diabetes accounts for about 95% of all cases. About 80-90% of type II cases are obesity related. Cells become resistant to insulin. Type II diabetes related to obesity may be reversed by weight loss.

Infographic showing the effects of glucagon and insulin on blood sugar.

 

 

 

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Integrated Human Anatomy and Physiology Part 2 Copyright © by Jim Hutchins; Travis Price; Justin Burr; Maddison Johnston; Pamela Silberman; Jeffery Speth; Jordan West; Lyndsey Gremillion; and Misty Allen is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.

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